Substance use disorders are defined by persistent drug consumption despite adverse consequences. Accordingly, we developed two fentanyl-vs-shock avoidance/escape choice procedures in which male and ...

Detecting existing threats is key to animal survival, and organisms have evolved many mechanisms for threat detection and escape. However, animals entering each new or familiar environment must also ...

Avoidance learning is part of an organism’s survival instinct, as it develops a response to evade a hostile stimulus before it happens. After experiencing an unpleasant stimulus, organisms start to ...